Reading Comprehension

*Process	Challenges for L2 Readers	Instructional Activities
Microprocesses: This level of comprehension occurs at the sentence level. It involves “chunking” ideas within sentences into meaningful phrases and units. The reader selects what is important about the sentence to store in short-term memory.	L2 readers may lack knowledge of English grammar and syntax and therefore, may read word by word. They may encounter too much unfamiliar vocabulary to grasp the overall concept conveyed in the sentence. They are also challenged when reading idiomatic expressions and unfamiliar grammatical constructions.	Choral reading to build fluency with the ebb and flow of the language and learn phraseology. Marking sentences to identify units of meaning Cutting and recombining or arranging sentence strips with units of meaning. Explicit teaching of unfamiliar grammatical and syntactic forms and idiomatic expressions
Integrative processes: This process involves inferring connections and relationships between clauses and sentences at the multiple-sentence and paragraph levels. It requires the reader to make linkages by noticing pronoun substitutions, synonym substitutions, inferring cause and effect, and recognizing connectives such as also, however, and unless.	L2 readers may have difficulty with more complex and compound sentences. They may lose the meaning of references within the text, such as with frequent use of pronouns. Pronoun usage may be different or less frequent in the native language. Connectives may be overlooked or misunderstood so they lose the relationships between concepts and ideas.	“Close reading” of sentences and paragraphs guided by referential questions. Sentence transformation activities to help understand how complex sentences are constructed Sentence recombination to learn how ideas are linked together in a text. Substitute antecedents and referents with nouns. Diagram or draw. relationships in a paragraph using circles and arrows.
Macroprocesses: This involves relating to “the big picture” through organization of ideas from the entire text as well as smaller units. It requires use of knowledge of story structure, expository text structures, poetic formulas and genre.	L2 readers may have difficulty adjusting their reading strategies to match the author’s intent or purpose. They may not be familiar with a particular story “grammar” or the organizational patterns of informational text. They may not be familiar with specific genre and the literary devises used in text.	Outlining and summarizing paragraphs to focus on how the main idea is supported by details. Identifying the function of paragraphs. Answering the “W” questions: who, what, where, when and why? Identifying problem and solution through guided questions.
Elaborative processes: This process involves going beyond literal comprehension to understanding the coherence of text and to make inferences about the author’s message. It requires that readers make personal connections with what they read, using prior knowledge and making predictions. They also identify with characters and connect with their affective responses.	Narvaez (2002) identifies cultural schema effects and theme comprehension elements that may impede comprehension for L2 readers: 1) Different conceptual frameworks may be activated that misguide their reading 2) Expectations of what is normal may differ and cause breakdowns in coherence 3) Cause and consequence chains can differ and/or be more emotional, evoking strong reactions in the reader 4) symbols may differ 5) There may be differences in what to attend to, what to ignore, or what is superfluous.	Conduct “grand conversations” about what students read. Teach using “core book units” for going in depth into a piece of literature, making connections to prior knowledge and learning from the content areas. Use graphic organizers, story maps and other visual displays and representations of characters, setting, and plot. Make cultural knowledge explicit by describing and explaining values, beliefs, traditions and cultural patterns of behavior using multicultural literature. Focus on affective responses to literature from different genre.
Metacognitve processes: Readers reflect on and monitor their comprehension and problem-solving strategies to read and write effectively. These include predicting, visualizing, organizing, tapping into prior knowledge, re-reading and self-questioning. For L2 readers, this includes metalinguistic processes, as they utilize their knowledge and skills as bilingual learners. These include recognizing cognates, translation, and paraphrasing in L1.	L2 readers often use strategies that are applicable to the orthographic system, and the grammatical and syntactic patterns of their L1. These may or may not transfer into English reading and text. L2 readers’ greatest challenge is unfamiliar vocabulary. They benefit from explicit teaching in how to find word meanings when the text provides sufficient context clues. They also may lack appropriate “repair strategies” to use when meaning is lost or misinterpretations occur.	Make cross-linguistic transfer explicit. Have students describe and give examples of similarities and contrasts between L1 and English orthography and grammar. Use advance organizers to guide students’ purpose, rate, and focus during reading. Model self-monitoring through the use of strategies through “think-aloud” activities, read and retell activities, paraphrasing and summarizing. Activities can include work in pairs and small groups using students’ L1 appropriately.

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