CLASSROOMS WHERE STUDENTS
LEARN ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE
What Research Tells Us
Jill Kerper
Mora
San Diego State University
Characteristics of Effective L2 Classrooms
According to a study conducted by Lilly Wong Fillmore (1982), language use patterns, organization for instructional activities, and the student composition of classrooms interact to produce either high levels or low levels of language learning. Factors stemming from the way in which classrooms are organized for instruction are within the control of the teacher. Situational variables, such as classroom composition, affect the ability of students to learn a new language. Classroom composition may depend on program placement decisions or may be due to de facto segregation or patterns of mobility and residency within communities. Wong Fillmore found the following to be salient characteristics of classrooms that promote L2 learning:
In classes with a wide range of language abilities, the students
were grouped by language ability for
instruction within their classroom. These groupings were flexible and temporary, changing
according to learners' growing language
proficiencies.
Some subjects were
taught in the unfamiliar language L2, while others were taught in familiar language the L1.
When the unfamiliar
language was used as the medium of instruction, the teacher
made special efforts to use the language in a way that made it possible for the
children to understand the content.
Numerous occasions each
day were provided for members of each group to interaction
with each other in large and small group activities.
Classes were organized around highly-structured, teacher-directed
activities. Both whole group and small group activities were nearly always teacher
directed.
Lessons were conducted either in the home language or in the
second language; a single lesson rarely included both L1 and L2.
Students were called on
frequently to respond, either as individuals or as a group.
Teachers used the L1
occasionally during instruction in English to explain
concepts that could not be demonstrated non-verbally and would otherwise be difficult
to understand in L2. The home language was used for explanation,
not for translation.
Characteristics of Ineffective L2 Learning Classrooms
In a study of L2 learning in bilingual classrooms involving Asian and Hispanic LEP students (Fillmore, 1982) the following were found to be characteristics of classrooms where well over one-third of the non-English speakers failed to learn English:
Students
engaged in largely individualized learning activities each day.
Learning
activities were in English, but children were interacting with one another in their first
language, using little or no English in the classroom.
Students had
little or no direct contact with any English-speaking classmates.
Students had
only brief, and for some students relatively infrequent, contact with the English-speaking
teacher.
During
interaction with the teacher, students seldom said much but were able to communicate their
needs by nonverbal means.
When
unsuccessful in communicating with the teacher, students generally turned to a teaching
assistant who was able to communicate with them in their L1.
Students who
were unable to initiate interactions with English-speaking teacher or English-speaking
classmates generally had a hard time learning English.
When there
was a 50-50 mix of LEP and fluent English speakers, teachers modified language input
somewhat but not enough to allow children who did not know the language well to figure out
what was being said. The consequence was that the English used instructionally was not
very useful to learners as input data.
Assessing Language Development Programs
Examining Underlying Assumptions
1. Can the program be identified with a particular body of theory? If so, what elements of this body of theory do you see being implemented as a component of the program? Do you believe the program is a "faithful" and coherent interpretation of the theory?
2. What assumptions are made in the program about how language is best taught to children? How is it best learned by children? At what age or stage of cognitive development?
3. If the program is a bilingual or L2 program, what assumptions are made in the program about how long it takes children to acquire a second language? What degree of proficiency are students expected to attain? For what purposes?
4. Does the language program reflect the values and beliefs of the school community? Does it reflect patterns of language use within the community? Does it seek to involve parents and families in activities to support and promote language development in the home?
5. Within the language development program, how is language used by teachers in the classroom? How is the language used by students? What types of interactions are encouraged between teacher and students and/or among the students? How are these interactions structured?
6. Is the focus of the language program on oral language or on literacy development or both? What is the balance between these forms of language use? If the focus is on language in literacy, what types of instructional materials are provided to support and enhance this type of language learning?
7. What challenges, problems, and issues surround the language program implemented at the district, school and/or classroom level? Are these academic issues, program continuity issues, and/or political issues, or other type of issue?
Reference:
Wong Fillmore, L. (1982). Instructional language as linguistic input: Second-language learning in classrooms. In L.C. Wilkinson (Ed.), Communicating in the classroom: Language, thought and culture. Advances in the Study of Cognition Series. New York, NY: Academic Press.
Additional Resources:
For an excellent menu of information on effective teaching practices and teaching standards for culturally and linguistically diverse students, click here. This site also provides a comprehensive bibliography on effective teaching.
To navigate Dr. Mora's CLAD Website:
This page was last updated on 04/06/08