A Curriculum Framework
for Biliteracy Development

 

The Primary-language Literacy Controversy

Just months before passage of Proposition 227, the National Academy of Science's Committee on the Prevention of Reading Difficulties in Young Children (National Research Council, 1998) issued a recommendation that initial literacy instruction be provided in the child's native language whenever possible. The International Reading Association (1998) adopted a resolution endorsing the National Research Council's recommendations and opposing local, state, and federal initiatives and legislation that restrict opportunities for children to receive initial literacy instruction in their native language. According to the NRC Committee, initiating reading instruction in the native language of bilingual children reduces the risks of reading problems found among students who face the additional challenge of learning to read in their second language.

The accumulated wisdom of research in the field of bilingual education and literacy tends to converge on the conclusion that, while initial literacy instruction in a second language can be successful, it carries with it a higher risk of reading problems and of lower ultimate literacy attainment than initial literacy instruction in a first language, and this risk may compound risks associated with poverty, low levels of parental education, poor schooling, and other such factors. (p. 223)

The primary-language literacy approach to reading instruction for children with limited English proficiency is oftentimes employed in transitional bilingual programs as the means to an end, the end being to facilitate the acquisition of reading skills in English. However, those who advocate an additive approach to bilingualism value Spanish literacy as an end in itself. The rationale for the primary-language literacy approach is based on linguistic and pedagogical principles that recognize and accommodate the special needs of bilingual learners. Beyond addressing the particular challenges of teaching students with limited English proficiency, primary-language literacy and biliteracy also affirm the value of the language minority students' linguistic and cultural repertoire of knowledge and skills for becoming fluent readers and writers (Milk, Mercado & Sapiens, 1992).

In a primary-language literacy program the Spanish speaking child is initiated into the school environment and emergent literacy development activities in the language the child brings from home. Cummins (1991) reports a number of studies that support the premise that Spanish reading skills form a foundation for successful reading in English. Hispanic immigrant students demonstrated a considerably stronger relationship between English and Spanish reading skills than between English reading skills and English oral communicative skills. Some research is available to establish correlation between the approach used to teach Spanish reading and subsequent success in English reading. The concepts and skills acquired through Spanish reading that are applicable to English reading through cross-linguistic transfer (Odlin, 1989) can be enumerated and assessed as bilingual readers progress toward full biliteracy.  One school of thought is that while the listening and speaking skills required to begin reading instruction have been developed in Spanish-the home language, these skills can be acquired in English before the more complex language skills of reading and writing are formally initiated in the second language.

Research supports the premise that many reading skills and strategies transfer across languages. Durgunoglu, Nagy, Hancin (1993) investigated the factors influencing the English word identification performance of Spanish-speaking non-fluent readers. They found that the readers’ performance on tests of letter naming, Spanish phonemic awareness and word recognition predicted their ability to recognize English words and pseudo-words. They concluded that there is cross-language transfer of phonemic awareness and that first language skills can aid children in the beginning stages of reading. In her study of phonological awareness of Spanish speaking children learning English, González (1999) concluded that the phonological development of Spanish/English bilingual is sequential rather than simultaneous. González presented a framework for assessing phonological development and designing appropriate instructional interventions for enhancing literacy with English language learners. This assessment framework is based on normal and predictable patterns of second-language acquisition.

Further evidence of the transfer of global and specific reading strategies and skills are available in the research literature. Jiménez, García, & Pearson (1996) also confirmed that bilingual readers apply similar strategies for deciphering and comprehending text in both English and Spanish. These research findings suggest that teachers of English language learners can benefit from having a broad repertoire of instructional strategies for addressing word recognition, including knowledge of the grapheme-phoneme relationships in English to students who may be unfamiliar with the English sound system. A component of these skills must be the ability to make students aware of the differences in the sound and spelling systems of L1 and L2 so that the proficient reader of Spanish can transfer knowledge into effective strategies for reading in English.

A Balanced Approach to Biliteracy Instruction

The on-going debate over methods and approaches to reading had not offered bilingual/ESL teachers much in the way of a clear direction and relevant methodologies. Furthermore, research suggests that many of the premises on which the phonics, skills and whole language approaches are based do not necessarily hold true for second-language readers. This is due in part to the added dimensions in learning to read attributable to students’ varying levels of oral language proficiency and cross-linguistic transfer (Fitzgerald, 1995; Miramontes, Nadeau & Commins, 1997). Moreover, innovations that appear to be equally applicable to Spanish and English language arts are difficult to apply to English language learners who cannot handle reading core works of literature in their second language.

The same continuum of reading methods and approaches that is the subject of debate among teachers of English language arts exists among educators in the Spanish-speaking nations. The continuum for Spanish reading ranges from synthetic methods that focus on part-to-whole strategies to holistic and meaning-focused approaches using sight word methods and narratives, with a mid-point of "métodos integrados" representing a balance (Medina, 1989). The approach used can be synthetic, analytic, or a combination of synthetic and analytic techniques. García (1992) found that teachers of language minority students who were characterized as "effective" were able to clearly articulate what they were doing in their classrooms with distinct beliefs about their teaching role and strategies, although they did not consider themselves "eclectic" in their teaching.

There are several different approaches to Spanish reading instruction that are widely used in primary-language literacy programs. (Freeman & Freeman, 1997; Thonis, 1983). Three commonly used approaches are the phonetic method, the global method, and the eclectic method. The phonetic method is a synthetic method in which the letter-sound association for the vowels are taught first, followed by single consonants and consonant blends, then proceeding to the formation of syllables by synthesizing consonant and vowel sounds. Words are recognized by sounding out and combining syllables, with phrases and sentences then being constructed from these elements.

The global or ideovisual approach to Spanish reading is an analytical approach. The reading teacher using this approach presents words, phrases, and sentences as language units, always associated with the total concept and meaning. The emphasis in this approach is on comprehension, with letter-sound associations and word structure taught by examining these features in the context of whole text. The third approach to Spanish reading is an eclectic approach, which blends and melds strategies from the phonetic and global approaches.

A common sequence for teaching Spanish reading is based on a synthetic approach. Study of individual consonant and vowel letter-sound associations is usually followed by instruction in combining consonants and consonant blends into syllables to form words. An onomatopoeic method may be used within this progression to establish letter-sound associations by creating stories that imitate a sound and identify animals or characters with the production of the sound in association with the corresponding letter. Using this analytic approach, word recognition strategies are taught as words are broken down into their component parts which are recombined to teach new and related words, phrases and sentences.

The merits of the approach to Spanish reading selected in a transitional bilingual program can be viewed in terms of each one's effectiveness for teaching the child to read in his/her native language, as well as for laying the foundation for the transition into English reading. This dual purpose of primary-language literacy instruction is the reason why many literacy experts and researchers support a phonics approach that capitalizes on the high degree of similarity and orthographic equivalencies between English and Spanish (Goldenberg, 1994). However, other bilingual educators question the effectiveness of a phonics approach in teaching children who encounter language in English text that is unfamiliar in vocabulary, grammar and discourse style. A criticism of traditional synthetic approaches in Spanish is that construction of meaning is ignored or taken for granted since the child is learning reading strategies in his/her native language.

Click here for an excellent discussion of common fallacies about biliteracy and an overview of biliteracy development by Kenneth and Yetta Goodman.

Underlying Philosophy of Framework

The curriculum framework presented here is based on the premise that children learn to read by constructing meaning from text in their native language (Spanish) and more gradually in their acquired language (English). The assumption is that children with normal levels of language development in their L1 can begin to read in that language with relative ease as they become familiar with basic letter-sound associations and spelling patterns that aid them in word recognition. The recognition of words occurs because phonetic decoding usually results in triggered associations with the meaning of words in context. The Language Experience Approach (LEA) helps children realize that print represents words and sentences that convey meaning and they can learn how single letters and letter combinations spell those words. Children must develop skills of discrimination (of shapes, letters, sounds, and other linguistic units) as they begin to read. Therefore, the framework describes how as meaning is constructed young readers are lead to focus on the necessary discrimination of features of print.

The framework is also predicated on the belief that reading and writing are processes that depend on certain levels of linguistic competence and that this competence can be transferred across languages. Children can learn to read in two languages simultaneously, provided that the needed oral proficiency and knowledge of the grammatical forms of the language are sufficiently developed. Consequently, in a context where children are learning to read in both L1 and L2, it is advisable to develop many metalinguistic concepts first in the native language and then support the transfer of concepts into the second language as oral proficiency is established. This is best accomplished by a bilingual teacher with a high level of professional skill in language and literacy teaching. Alternatively, team teaching with a bilingual teacher and monolingual teacher who carefully coordinate their literacy program is also effective. Students who receive literacy instruction only in their second language can also learn to read. However, the process will predictably take longer and presents higher risks of reading failure, especially where teachers are not knowledgeable of the particular challenges faced by L2 readers.

 

Curriculum Framework for Biliteracy Development

 

References

Click here for a complete list of references.

 

Additional Resources

Click below for instructional modules and research articles about biliteracy and second language available on Dr. Mora's CLAD Website.

To navigate Dr. Mora's CLAD Website

This page was last updated on 07/26/02