Worked examples

A WORKED EXAMPLE IS BASICALLY a problem statement accompanied by the presentation of an expert solution. Worked examples are useful for teaching procedures and problem-solving. Research shows that for novice learners, using worked examples increases the efficiency of learning (Atkinson, Derry, Renkl, and Wortham, 2000). Worked examples can even reduce the number of practice exercises needed.

Worked examples are commonly used in domains such as science, math, algebra, geometry, and chess. They can also be used to teach a wide variety of job-related skills like using computer programs and finding solutions to legal problems, and "soft skills" such as selling techniques (Clark and Mayer, 2000). 

Forms of worked examples:

Advantage: Learn procedures instead of trial-and-error.

An expert's approach to a problem is shared with a learner

With worked examples, an expert's thinking and procedures are exposed for the learner. Cognitive theory suggests that worked examples reduce cognitive overloads. Rather than using limited working memory to search for a solution, learners can focus on learning the moves that are important for solving a problem. Worked examples can keep learners from resorting to trial-and-error approaches. With trial-and-error approaches a learner may even arrive at a solution without having learned effective approaches to the problem.

Advantage:  Recognize essential features of the problem.

A novice often interprets a problem more in terms of surface (contextual) features. An expert, however, tends to use his or her mental knowledge map to identify exactly which type or category the problem belongs to. Then s/he recalls and uses procedures appropriate for that type of problem (Atkinson et al., 2000). Worked examples help novices learn to interpret problems in this more effective way.

Guideline #1:

An expert breaks a problem into sub-goals

To create a worked example, break a problem into meaningful chunks or sub-goals. Show these by labeling or spatially isolating them.

Suppose we are training k-12 teachers to hold effective parent-teacher conferences. Let's say we're teaching how to prevent parents' becoming defensive when children's problems at school are discussed. Handling this problem has several aspects such as balancing pleasant with unpleasant feedback, creating the sense of a parent-teacher team, and helping the parent get a realistic picture of his child's progress.

We could develop a case story which details how an experienced teacher approached and solved the problem. To be most effective, we will depict the experienced teacher mentally breaking up the problem (preventing parents' defensiveness) into components.

Guideline #2:

For a given problem-type, provide multiple worked examples using different contexts (case stories).

Novices are trying to learn how to solve a certain type of problem or perform a certain procedure as it occurs in different situations in life.  But in real life problems are not usually labeled: "This is problem type A. Apply solutions you learned for problem type A." So given a problem occurring in a real situation, we want the learner to be able to identify what type of problem it is — the essence of the problem.

For example, a customer-service representative may encounter a wide variety of complaining customers; and for many of these cases what he needs to use is "listening-to-customer skills." The rep needs to be able to correctly identify which complaint situations are really "listening-needed" type situations.  Then he can apply his specific "listening-to-customer" skills.

A lesson uses varied stories to teach a principle

Worked examples could be used to train customer-service representatives.  For optimum learning, the examples of "listening-to-customer" situations should each have a different context or "cover story" (see the illustration above). This will help the learner recognize a "listening  needed" situation more easily.  He will learn that although complaints are many, in a certain group of cases the same "listening-to-customers" skills apply. 

For More Information:

The major points in this article are from the following two articles.

For a detailed summary of the research on worked examples, see:

Atkinson, R.K., Derry, S.J., Renkl, A. & Wortham, D. (2000). Learning from examples: Instructional principles from the worked examples research. Review of Educational Research, 70(2), 181-214. Retrieved July 31, 2007, from Research Library Core database. (Document ID: 68766346)

For practical interpretation of the research and more guidelines for using worked examples, see:

Clark, R.C. & Mayer, R.E. (2003). E-learning and the science of instruction. San Francisco: John Wiley. (See chapter 10.)

Margaret Kitterman, Ph.D.

Kitterman, M.J. (2007). Worked examples. In  B. Hoffman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Technology. Retrieved from