Module 6
Cognitive Task Analysis

Introduction

Using Knowledge Maps to Make Instructional Design Decisions

This module gives you the opportunity to learn how to build knowledge maps. This module also provides you with a chance to practice using knowledge maps to make instructional design decisions. 

When you complete this module you should be able to:

1. Interpret knowledge maps and see how they relate to lesson content.
2. Use probe questions to construct knowledge maps.
3. Use knowledge maps to guide lesson/curriculum development.

The Content-Performance Matrix

Ruth Clark describes two ingredients of instruction as information and the performance outcome. Her Content-Performance matrix, shown below, provides a framework for classifying facts, concepts, processes, procedures, and principles as performance outcomes, at the remember or application level. This matrix provides a way of categorizing knowledge and outcomes in ways to better organize instruction. Knowledge maps are one of the ways to display and analyze this information.
 

The Spreadsheet: An Example of a Knowledge Map

The SITE model challenges designers to think about the opportunities that the technical context provides for learners to realize their goals. Knowledge maps provide a context for more detailed analysis of the knowledge learners need to develop in order to achieve their goals, or the goals of the enterprise or community. 

The map below explicitly identifies one goal as a final state of affairs desired by the learner: "mortgage cost calculated" (red oval). The map also lays out more detailed knowledge of actions and concepts  necessary to realize this state of affairs. The actions are represented by green trapezoids and the concepts are represented by spiky blue bubbles. These concepts and actions can be stated as learning outcomes that would enable calculation of the mortgage cost.  For example: Given a spreadsheet document the learner will be able to identify the rows, columns, and cells. Before proceeding, look at the diagram below and consider which areas represent procedural knowledge, and which areas represent conceptual knowledge. Mouse over the knowledge map to see additional details.

Study the map and write three learning outcomes, or goals and objectives, that describe knowledge required to achieve the goal. At least one of your learning outcomes should describe an action or skill, and at least one should provide a basis for measuring conceptual knowledge.  Highlight below feedback with your cursor to see our answer.
 

Feedback: To see our answers, triple click the white area below:

Here are some examples of instructional goals that might be appropriate for this domain.  Of course, the goals could vary quite a bit depending on information about the prior knowledge of the learners, their role in some enterprise, and so on.
1. Students will be able to enter formulas into a cell.
2. Students will be able to identify (point to) the major parts of a spreadsheet: rows, columns, and cells.
3. Students will be able to name the two major types of data that can be entered into a spreadsheet cell.

Cognitive Task Analysis and Knowledge Maps

Traditional task analysis elicits knowledge and skills needed for each individual subtask from subject matter experts. Cognitive task analysis delves deeper and illuminates a larger knowledge base of task-related knowledge. Cognitive task analysis considers the procedures and concepts. In addition, a cognitive task analysis clarifies the interrelationships among concepts and procedures in a specific knowledge domain.

Designers use a variety of cognitive task analysis methods. Some methods focus on data collection, others on data representation, and others on specific task analysis (for more info. see Sallie Gordon's Book Systematic Training Program Design: Maximizing Effectiveness and Minimizing Liability (1994, pp. 70-110). The knowledge map combines data collection and data representation. Sallie Gordon advocates conceptual graph structures (a type of knowledge map) for cognitive task analysis (Gordon, p.99).

Data collection for developing knowledge maps involves obtaining  knowledge from documents, verbal protocols, question probes, and observation of task performance. During the data collection process, the designer classifies the knowledge and uses specified symbols to represent the knowledge on the knowledge map. The conceptual graph process of collecting and representing knowledge capably captures all types of knowledge, from factual, rule, and explicit knowledge, to implicit, automated knowledge.

A knowledge map represents relationships between knowledge elements (goals, concepts, goal/actions) in a domain of learning. The learner can work their way through the domain of knowledge in a variety of ways, depending on their specific purpose, or their enterprise's purpose. Before proceeding, look at the diagram below and consider how you could move through the knowledge domain.  Mouse over the knowledge map to see additional details.

This thumbnail sketch of a knowledge map lays out three different paths the learner might take through the domain. The paths might vary depending on their prior knowledge of the domain.  For example, a learner who can capably use the manual or the help menu might opt for the blue path. A learner who was already familiar with basic concepts might take the red path.

A Little Bit of History

The type of knowledge maps that we are using in this module are called conceptual graph structures (CGS), and they were originally developed for use in a research context. People have used them in the field of computer science for many years. Since then, conceptual graph structures have been modified for use in many domains including: knowledge engineering, artificial intelligence mapping, and, most importantly for instructional designers' knowledge acquisition. Gordon (1994) modified these conventions specifically for use in developing technical training. Brock Allen and EDTEC 544 students further modified these conventions, adding color and shape.